Utah  Agricultural  College 

EXPERIMENT  STATION 

Bulletin  No.    1 44 


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Water  Table  Variations 

Causes  and  Effects 


BY 

A.  B.  BALLANTYNE 


Logan,  Utah,  May,  1916. 


Lehi    Sun    Print 
Lehi.     Utah. 


UTAH  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT 
STATION 


BOARD   OF  TRUSTEES. 

LORENZO     N.    STOHL Brigham 

THOMAS    SMART Logan 

JOHN     Q.     ADAMS Logan 

ELIZABETH    C.    McCUNE Salt    Lake    City 

J.    W.    N.    WHITECOTTON Provo 

JOHN   DERN Salt  Lake  City 

JOHN  C.  SHARP Salt  Lake  City 

ANGUS    T.    WRIGHT Ogden 

J.   M.   PETERSON Richfield 

HAZEL  L.  'DUN FORD Salt  Lake  City 

GEO.  T.  ODELL Salt  Lake  City 

JOSEPH   QUINNEY,  JR. Logan 

DAVID  MATTSON,  Secretary  of  State,  (Ex-officio) Salt  Lake  City 

OFFICERS  OF  THE   BOARD. 

LORENZO    N.    STOHL _ President 

ELIZABETH   C.   McCUNE Vice-President 

JOHN    L.  COBURN Secretary 

HYRUM   E.  CROCKETT Treasurer 

EXPERIMENT  STATION   STAFF. 
J.  A.  WIDTSOE,  Ph.  D.,  President  of  the  College. 

E.  D.  BALL,   Ph.   D Director 

WM.  PETERSON,  B.  S. Consulting  Geologist 

H.  J.  FREDERICK,  D.  V.  M Veterinarian 

E.  G.  TITUS,   Sc.   D Entomologist 

L.  D.  BATCH ELOR,  Ph.  D Horticulturist 

F.  S.    HARRIS,    Ph.   D Agronomist 

F.  L.   WEST,   Ph.    D Meteorologist 

J.   E.   GREAVES,   Ph.    D Bacteriologist 

W.  E.  CARROL,  Ph.   D Animal   Husbandman 

BYRON    ALDER,    B.    S Poultryman 

G.  R.  HILL,  JR.,  Ph.  D Plant  Pathologist 

W.  H.  HOMER,  JR.,  M.  S Acting  Horticulturist 

C.  T.   HIRST,   M.  S. Assistant   Chemist 

ARCHIE   EGBERT,   D.  V.   M.   B.   S. Assistant    Poultryman 

H.  J.  MAUGHAN,  B.  S Assistant  Agronomist 

B.   L.   RICHARDS,   B.   S Assistant  Plant   Pathologist 

GEORGE    STEWART,   B.   S Assistant   Agronomist 

GEORGE    B.   CAINE,    M.  A Assistant   Animal    Husbandman 

LESLIE  A.  SMITH,  B.  S Assistant  Bacteriologist 

WM.  GOODSPEED,  B.  S Assistant  Horticulturist 

AARON   BRACKEN,  B.  S Assistant  Agronomist 

H.  R.  HAGAN,  B.  S Assistant  Entomologist 

N.  I.  BUTT,  B.  S Assistant  Agronomist 

E.  T.  CARTER,  B.  S Assistant  Chemist  and  Bacteriologist 

VIOLET   GREENHALGH,    B.    S Clerk    and    Librarian 

O.    BLANCHE    CONDIT,    B.    A Clerk 

IN  CHARGE  OF  CO-OPERATIVE  INVESTIGATIONS  WITH  U.  S. 
DEPARTMENT   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

L.  M.  WINSOR,  B.  S _ Irrigation  Engineer 

J.  W.  JONES,  B.  S ....Assistant  Agronomist 


WATER   TABLE   VARIATIONS. 

BY  A.  B.  BALLANTYNE. 

INTRODUCTION. 

As  stated  in  Bulletin  No.  143  the  matter  contained  there 
and  in  the  following  pages  grew  out  of  seepage  conditions  on 
the  Southern  Utah  Experiment  Farm,  which  necessitated  the 
removal  of  a  five  acre  vineyard  in  1908  and  of  a  seven  acre 
orchard  in  1910.  The  general  soil  conditions  were  there  briefly 
indicated  and  the  extent  and  physical  conditions  of  the  root 
systems  discussed.  In  this  bulletin  is  shown  the  effect  of  rain- 
fall and  irrigation  water  on  the  soil  in  relation  especially  to  its 
free  water  content  at  various  seasons  and  how  this  varies.  A 
brief  discussion  of  the  fluctuations  shown  and  of  their  effect  on 
the  soil  and  vegetation  is  also  included;  this,  with  the  conditions 
of  the  farm  especially  in  mind. 

A  history  of  the  seepage  conditions  on  the  farm  if  carefully 
written  would  be  similar,  with  slight  modifications,  to  that  of 
many  other  sections  in  the  int6rmountain  region,  with  this  one 
factor  well  in  mind — that  the  soil  under  discussion  is  decidedly 
sandy,  especially  below  the  first  foot.1  Such  a  soil  would 
necessarily  permit  the  very  free  movement  of  water  within  it, 
if  it  were  not  hindered  by  the  presence  of  too  great  a  quantity  of 
alkaline  salts. 

For  this  reason,  more  or  less  alkaline  soils  of  different 
physical  texture  such  as  the  clays,  loams  and  silts,  might  not, 
under  excessive  irrigation,  reveal  as  great  fluctuations  of  the 
water  table  as  the  ones  shown.  The  seepage  conditions  might 
be  manifest  by  only  a  boggy  condition  of  the  soil,  and  the  presence 
of  quantities  of  free  water  might  be  detected  only  by  the  well 
being  kept  open  for  some  time. 

On  more  porous  soils,  as  the  gravels,  if  the  drainage  were 
good  less  marked  fluctuations  would  occur;  but  if  this  drainage 
were  not  free,  then  the  fluctuations  might  be  even  more  marked 
than  those  illustrated  here. 

The  Wells:  As  suggested  previously,  these  borings  down  to 
water  were  made  in  the  fall  of  1910,  the  main  purpose  being  to 

1     For  a  discussion  of  the  Physical  and  Chemical  characteristics  of 
this  soil  see  Utah  Station  Bulletin  No.  121. 


4  BULLETIN     NO.     144 

determine  the  nature  of  the  movement  of  the  free  water — or  the 
water  table  level — within  the  soil.  It  was  of  course  known  that 
water  applied  on  the  surface  would  induce  a  change  in  the  level 
of  the  free  water  in  the  soil,  but  it  was  desirable  to  know  just 
how  much  and  why  it  varied. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  that  in  1910  the  line  of  demarkation 
between  the  seeped  and  normal  portions  of  the  farm  was 
practically  coincident  with  the  drive  which  separated  the  upper 
and  lower  halves  of  the  farm. 

Six  wells  were  originally  bored,  and  as  nearly  as  possible 
each  was  located  so  as  to  represent  the  different  areas  on  the 
farm  and  the  different  stages  in  the  process  of  becoming  seeped. 

Well  No.  6  was  bored  in  the  old  vineyard  and  was  intended 
to  represent  the  highest  and  best  drained  land  on  the  farm.  Well 
No.  1  was  also  on  the  upper  part  of  the  farm  but  in  a  small 
slightly  swale-like  depression  and  the  surface  soil  had  always 
shown  considerable  alkali.  The  surface  soil  here  is  clay  loam, 
which  with  the  alkali  has  made  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  trees 
in  the  vicinity  less  than  that  of  those  in  the  rest  of  the  orchard. 
It  was  expected  that  if  seepage  effect  should  appear  in  the  upper 
haJf  of  the  farm  that  this  would  be  one  -of  the  first  places,  and 
this  proved  to  be  true,  as  the  entire  southcentral  portion  of  the 
Elberta  peach  orchard  later  sickened  and  died. 

Wells  Nos.  2  and  3  were  in  an  old  lucern  patch  on  the  south- 
west portion  of  the  farm.  The  lucern  all  through  this  patch  was 
short  and  stunted  and  at  no  time  through  the  season  made  more 
than  half  a  normal  crop.1  To  the  north  of  well  No.  3  half  way 
between  that  and  No.  4  was  a  small  area  in  which  the  alfalfa  had 
died  out.  Well  No.  4  was  on  the  edge  of  the  alfalfa  field  in  an 
area  that  had  originally  been  planted  to  orchard  and  vineyard, 
but  which  had  been  removed  on  account  of  seepage.2  The 
alfalfa  around  well  No.  4  grew  quite  well  for  a  few  years  but 
later  had  mostly  died  out  and  all  of  the  orchard  in  the  region 

1.  On  this  area  the  third  crop  of  lucern  in  1911  was  cut  and  left 
on  the  ground  and  that  and  the  fourth  crop  were  plowed  under  and  the 
whole  patch  was  seeded  to  fall  oats.  The  lucern  came  up  with  the 
oats  the  next  spring,  and  after  the  grain  ripened  the  lucern  grew  up  and 
was  again  plowed  under,  the  land  seeded  to  oats  and  the  process 
repeated;  hence  the  irrigations  after  the  oats  were  removed. 

2  This  area  was  seeded  to  oats  and  alfalfa  in  the  spring  of  1911 
and  a  fair  stand  of  alfalfa  resulted  which  remained  through  1914. 


WATER     TABLE     VARIATIONS  5 

between  wells  Nos.  4  and    5    had    been    destroyed,    well    No.    5 
representing  the  central  portion  of  this  area. 

Well  No.  7  was  bored  later  than  the  remainder  of  the  wells, 
as  it  was  observed  that  a  few  trees  in  the  apple  orchard  were 
showing  the  effect  of  seepage,  so  this  well  was  put  down  to 
ascertain  the  depth  to  water  in  this  section.  At  the  time  the  well 
was  bored  the  water  stood  8  feet  6  inches  from  the  surface.  A 
year  before  this  it  was  10  feet  from  the  surface  only  a  very  short 
distance  to  the  northeast  of  this  location. 


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Method  of  Measurement:  To  insure  uniformity  of  measure- 
ment, a  wooden  plate  was  placed  at  the  edge  of  the  hole  even 
with  the  surface.  A  light,  12-foot  wooden  rule,  graduated  to 
tenths  of  inches,  was  used  in  measuring  the  depth  of  the  water 
from  the  surface.  This  was  inserted  in  the  hole  and  lowered 
until  the  tip  rested  on  the  mud,  the  distance  noted  and  if  the  tip 


6  BULLETIN     NO.     144 

was  wet,  the  amount  of  it  was  subtracted  from  the  first  reading 
and  the  result  recorded.  If  the  well  was  filled  in  as  was  usually 
the  case,  it  was  cleaned  with  the  auger  and  an  hour  or  so  later 
the  depth  was  measured.  The  measurements  were  taken  to 
tenths  of  inches.  At  first  semi-weekly  measurements  were 
planned,  but  later  it  was  found  that  rainstorms  and  irrigations 
usually  altered  the  level  of  the  water  table  so  the  measurements 
were,  if  possible,  taken  before  and  after  irrigations. 

From  October,  1910,  to  January,  1911,  the  measurements 
were  made  by  Joseph  T.  Atkin  who  had  no  soil  auger  so  that  the 
depth  of  the  water  could  not  usually  be  determined.  However, 
after  January  12,  1911,  only  one  measurement  was  missed — that 
of  Well  No.  4 — July  12,  1913,  and  for  this  one  there  is  a  break  in 
the  graph ;  otherwise  the  rest  of  the  measurements  are  com- 
plete and  accurate  from  September  16,  1910,  to  September  16, 
1913.  The  semi-monthly  measurements  for  the  following  year 
used  in  the  tables  are  also  complete. 

In  the  following  charts,  is  given  a  graphical  representation 
of  the  vertical  movement  of  the  water  table  in  the  respective 
wells.  The  heavy  vertical  lines  below  the  body  of  the  chart  in 
the  section  marked  "Irrigations"  represent  irrigations  of  the 
ground  immediately  around  the  respective  wells.  The  irregular 
heavy  vertical  lines  below  represent  the  precipitation  in  inches. 

The  charts  or  graphs  represent  a  total  of  915  measurements 
extending  from  September  16,  1910,  to  September  16,  1913.  la 
addition  each  well  was  measured  semi-monthly  from  the  latter 
date  to  September  16,  1914,  making  a  total  of  1,111  measurements 
on  which  this  discussion  is  based. 

Discussion. 

In  general  the  measurements  show  that  an  intimate  relation- 
ship exists  between  the  water  table  level  and  the  conditions  of 
drainage,  precipitation,  surface  evaporation,  and  the  amount  of 
water  applied  at,  and  the  frequency  of  irrigations. 

Drainage:  On  the  higher  bench  lands  with  deep  gravelly 
subsoils,  the  other  causes  will  operate  slightly — if  at  all — when 
the  country  drainage  is  unimpeded.  On  low  bottom  lands,  how- 
ever, these  agencies  will  have  greater  effect,  the  rate  of  evapor- 
ation and  amount  of  rainfall  governing  to  an  appreciable  extent 
the  level  of  the  water  table. 


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8  BULLETIN     NO.     144 

A  study  of  the  movement  of  the  water  in  all  of  the  wells 
during  the  winter  and  spring  when  irrigating  water  was  not 
applied  to  any  extent  shows  that  the  level  without  exception 
persistently  lowered  as  the  season  progressed  up  to  the  time  when 
the  first  spring  irrigation  wTas  applied. 

This  indicates  that  the  amount  of  water  lost  by  evaporation 
(and  the  little  used  by  the  vegetation)  and  that  carried  away  by 
the  natural  drainage  was  greater  than  the  amount  applied— 
mainly  in  the  form  of  rain.  Thus,  if  no  irrigating  water  was 
applied  or  none  escaped  into  the  natural  drainage,  the  water 
level  would  soon  sink  to  the  point  at  which  it  would  be  main- 
tained by  the  seepage  from  the  canal.  It  may  be  well  to  add 
that  the  main  canal  extends  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  farm 
and  water  runs  continually  through  it,  being  turned  out  only 
for  about  two  weeks  in  late  March  or  early  April  to  allow  the 
annual  cleaning.  Hence  the  water  which  fills  the  soil  above  the 
level  which  the  seepage  from  the  canal  would  maintain,  comes 
from  that  received  on  the  surface  by  irrigation  or  precipitation. 

Effect  of  Rainfall:  The  extent  to  which  rainfall  will  in- 
fluence the  movement  of  the  water  table  apparently  depends  upon 
the  amount  of  rain  falling  within  a  given  time,  the  condition  of 
the  soil,  and  the  distance  from  the  surface  of  the  soil  to  the  water 
level.  If  the  free  water  is  a  considerable  distance  below  the 
surface  and  the  rainfall  moderate  the  section  of  soil  between  will 
retain. the  bulk  of  the  water  received  and  will  permit  but  a  small 
amount  to  join  the  country  drainage,  thus  slightly  affecting  the 
water  level.  Conversely,  a  moderate  or  great  amount  of  rain- 
fall will  readily  saturate  a  much  thinner  section  of  soil,  and  the 
greater  quantities  of  water  escaping  into  the  country  drainage 
will  cause  an  appreciable  rise  in  the  water  level,  where  it  is  but  a 
short  distance  below  the  surface.  That  is,  the  farther  from  the 
surface  the  free  water  is  the  less  will  it  be  affected  by  given 
amounts  of  rainfall. 

For  instance  Wells  Nos.  4  and  5  for  July  of  1912.  On  the 
15th  of  this  month  Well  No.  4  showed  water  at  4  feet,  10  inches ; 
rains  between  then  and  July  26  caused  a  rise  of  5  inches,  and  in 
WTell  No.  5  caused  $  rise  of  10.3  inches.  Well  No.  7  showed  a 
rise  of  an  even  foot,  while  Well  No.  1*  showed  a  rise  of  only  2.5 
inches.1 

1  Wells  Nos  2,  3  and  6  also  slaved  rises,  but  the  land  around  was 
irrigated  in  the  interval  so  these  are  not  quoted. 


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10  BULLETIN     NO.     144 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  water  levels  in  Nos.  5  and  7  for  this 
period  (July  15)  were  respectively  over  one  ancl  two  feet  lower 
than  in  Well  No.  4,  while  the  rise  in  each  was  over  twice  as  great 
(July  26).  This  additional  rise  was  probably  caused  by  the 
irrigation  of  a  soja  bean  crop  which  was  about  twenty  rods 
directly  east  of  Well  No.  7  and  on  higher  ground  so  that  the 
drainage  from  that  area  probably  affected  the  water  level  in  both 
Nos.  7  and  5,  which  were  in  the  direct  line  of  drainage.  Besides, 
Well  No.  7  was  in  a  cultivated  area,  while  Nos.  4  and  5  were  in 
an  alfalfa  field,  the  alfalfa  growing  much  ranker  around  Well 
No.  4  so  that  the  percentage  of  soil  moisture  in  its  vicinity  was 
probably  much  less  than  in  that  of  either  of  the  others.  However, 
the  mean  rise  by  July  26  of  the  level  in  the  three  showing  the 
water  level  to  be  nearer  the  surface  July  15,  was  over  one  foot 
two  inches  as  against  2.5  inches  in  the  wall  where  the  water  level 
was  from  one  foot  five  inches  to  three  feet  seven  inches  lower 
than  in  the  others. 

While  the  amount  of  precipitation  is  not  great1 — being  8.03 
inches — yet  the  winter  stormy  spells  have  a  distinct  effect  upon 
the  movement  of  the  water  table  especially  shown  on  the  graphs 
as  upward  bulges  from  the  line  or  ideal  curve  which  would 
represent  the  gradual  unimpeded  lowering  of  the  free  water  in 
the  soil  due  to  its  removal  by  natural  drainage  alone.  In  the 
graphs  of  all  of  the  wells  for  the  period  from  the  latter  part  of 
February  to  late  in  Marh  of!912,  such  upward  bulges  occur,  and 
these  can  not  well  be  attributed  to  other  causes.  The  graphs  of 
Wells  Nos.  4  and  5  for  1911  also  show  this  upward  bulge  through 
January,  February,  March  and  part  of  April ;  and  this  is  true  of 
practically  all  of  the  wells  for  this  period-  The  wells  Nos.  2,  3, 
4  and  5,  where  the  water  was  nearer  the  surface,  show  the  greater 
tendency  in  this  respect.  The  same  condition  would  probably 
have  been. shown  more  distinctly  in  the  spring  of  1913  had  sick- 
ness not  prevented  the  taking  of  measurements. 

Evaporation:  In  a  reverse  manner  the  unimpeded  evapor- 
ation from  the  surface  would  help  to  lower  the  level  of  the  water 
table  faster  than  the  natural  drainage  alone  would  do  it.  The 
degree  to  which  it  would  help  would  of  course  depend  upon  the 
state  of  the  surface  soil,  the  amount  of  vegetation  present, 

1  The  precipitation  occurs  mainly  in  two  periods — the  three  winter 
months  and  through  July  and  August. 


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12  BULLETIN     NO.     144 

meteriological  conditions  and  the  distance  of  the  water  table 
from  the  surface.  Marked  specific  instances  are  not  present  in 
enough  cases  to  warrant  attention  being  directed  to  them,  mainly 
because  during  the  periods  when  rainfall  was  not  abundant — 
and  thus  evaporation  high — irrigation  water  was  applied  to  the 
crops  then  growing  upon  the  land.  Besides,  to  gain  an  accurate 
idea  of  this  relation,  daily  measurements  would  probably  have 
to  be  taken  and  an  accurate  record  made  of  meterological  con- 
ditions during  the  period. 

Effect  of  Irrigations. 

Size  of  Stream:  The  size  of  the  stream  used  on  the  Southern 
Utah  Experiment  Farm  varied,  ranging  from  about  two  to  three 
second-feet  in  the  stream  that  watered  the  ground  around  Wells 
Nos.  1,  6  and  7,  and  from  three  and  one-half  to  probably  five  and 
one-half  second-feet  in  the  stream  that  watered  the  soil  around 
the  rest  of  the  wells.  These  are  estimates  as  there  was  no  weir 
on  the  place  and  only  in  two  or  three  places  was  it  possible  to 
secure  as  much  as  a  six  or  eight  inch  drop  for  one.  It  is  realized 
that  had  measured  quantities  of  water  been  applied  the  results 
obtained  would  have  been  more  valuable. 

Method  of  Applying  Water:  In  all  of  the  irrigations  on  the 
Farm  the  furrow  method  was  used.  In  the  orchard  from  four  to 
seven  were  made  between  the  tree  rows  (which  were  16  feet  apart)  ; 
in  the  vineyards  two  or  three  were  made  between  the  rows  (7  feet 
apart)  ;  and  in  the  alfalfa  and  grain  a  marker  left  the  furrows 
twenty  to  twenty-six  inches  apart.  Some  flooding  nearly  always 
occured  near  the  head  ditches  in  the  low  places,  and  to  some  extent 
at  the  bottom  of  the  patches. 

In  1910  and  1911  the  general  method  and  length  of  time 
used  in  applying  the  irrigations  were  those  that  had  been  used 
on  the  Farm  for  a  number  of  years.  In  1912  and  1913  an  attempt 
was  made  to  reduce  the  number  of  irrigations  and  the  amount  of 
each  on  all  of  the  land  except  that  in  which  "Wells  Nos.  2  and  3 
were  located.  On  this  (Plat  "B")  the  water  was  not  applied 
oftener  than  necessary,  but  the  length  of  time  it  was  allowed  to 
run  was  not  altered,  except  in  two  instances — June  21,  1911,  and 
July  17,  1912 — when  it  was  watered  in  six  hours,  or  in  about  half 
the  usual  time. 

Influence  of  Water :      As  noted  before  the  graphs  of  the  well 


WATER     TABLE     VARIATIONS  13 

measurements  show  that  as  soon  as  the  fall  irrigations  ceased,  the 
water  level  began  to  lower  and  continued  to  do  so  until  the  time  of 
the  first  spring  irrigation.1 

TABLE  No.  I— MEAN  SEASONAL  VARIATION  SHOWN  BY  254 
MEASUREMENTS  FROM  ALL  WELLS. 


Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

1910-11 

1911-12 

1912-13 

1913-14 

Mean 

November 

8     3.6 

7     0.1 

6     5.1 

8    3.7 

7     6.1 

March 

9     2.5 

8     0.4 

7     3.4 

8  10.7 

8    4.2 

July 

6     7.0 

6     3.5 

6     9.5 

7     2.6 

6     8.6 

This  is  brought  out  very  clearly  by  a  study  of  Table  No.  1 
which  shows  the  mean  monthly  depth  of  the  water  table  for  four 
years  to  have  been  at  7  feet  6.1  inches  for  the  month  of  November, 
or  at  the  end  of  the  summer  and  fall  irrigation  season.  From 
then  until  March  it  sank  to  a  mean  depth  of  8  feet  4.2  inches, 
revealing  a  mean  lowering  of  10.1  inches.  This  does  not  represent, 
however,  the  lowest  points  reached  by  tne  water  table  as  Table 
No.  II  illustrates.  This  represents  the  measurements  taken  just 
before  the  spring  irrigation,  when  the  level  was  lowest. 

TABLE  No.  II— LOWEST  LEVELS  RECORDED. 


Date 

Year 

No.  1 
Pt.  In. 

No.  2 
Ft.  In, 

No.  2 
Ft.  In. 

No.  4 
Ft.  In. 

No.  5 
Ft.  In. 

No.  6 
Ft.  In. 

No.  7 
Ft.  In. 

Mean 
Ft.  In. 

Apr. 

17 

1911 

11   6.0 

9 

11. 

8  2.2 

8  3.5 

8  4. 

11  3.7 

9  7.1 

Apr. 

17 

1912 

10  5.6 

8 

6.3 

7  4. 

7  4. 

7  2.7 

10  6. 

9     7.0 

8  8.5 

Apr. 

14 

1913 

8  9.0 

7 

6.0 

6  3. 

6  2.3 

6  6. 

9  1.7 

8     4.0 

7  6.3 

Mar. 

2 

1914 

11  0.7 

10 

5.0 

8  2.7 

6  7.5 

8  7.5 

10  4.5 

8  11. 

9  2.1 

The  mean  lowest  level  reached  in  the  spring  through  four 
years  is  thus  8  feet,  10  inches,  or  nearly  six  inches  below  the  lowest 
mean  monthly  level. 

Effect  of  First  Spring  Irrigation:  Immediately  after  the 
first  spring  irrigation — usually  given  after  the  middle  of  April 
— a  rise  in  the  water  table  is  nearly  always  noted,  as  will  be  seen 

1  This  was  usually  given  between  April  15  and  April  25,  and  while 
it  may  seem  early,  yet  it  is  about  a  month  later  than  is  common  in  the 
ne:ghborhood.  We  should  also  remember  in  connection  with  this,  the 
bright,  warm  winter  enjoyed  by  this  locality  and  that  four  inches  of 
rain  is  all  of  the  moisture  the  soil  received  after  the  fall  irrigation,  in  late 
October  or  November,  to  supply  the  loss  by  evaporation  and  the  amount 
used  by  the  plant  before  active  growth  begins  in  early  March. 


14  BULLETIN    NO.    144 

by  consulting  all  of  the  graphs.  The  amount  of  the  rise  is  not 
constant  for  the  wells  in  any  season  nor  does  any  one  well  show 
an  approximately  uniform  annual  variation  from  the  effects  of 
the  first  irrigation.  As  shown  by  Table  No.  I  the  rise  continues 
with  variations  so  that  by  July  the  mlean  rise  has  been  1  foot  5.6 
inches. 

In  some  instances  the  sudden  variation  is  extreme,  notably 
in  Wells  Nos.  2  and  3  for  the  three  years  they  are  mapped.  (See 
Plates  3,  4,  and  5).  The  greatest  single  variation  occurs  in  Well 
No.  2  in  1911.  (See  Plate  No.  4).  Between  the  seventeenth  and 
the  twenty-sixth  of  April  of  that  year  the  water  level  rose  from 
9  feet  11  inches  to  5  feet  3.5  inches,  a  total  rise  of  4  feet  7.5 
inches  from  a  single  irrigation — a  rise  that  undoubtedly  proved 
a  serious  injury  to  the  fall  sown  grain  crop  whose  roots  had  been 
constantly  growing  downward  during  the  winter  as  the  water 
level  receded. 

Prom  this  extreme  condition  we  go  nearly  to  the  opposite  in 
a  few  instances  where  the  level  was  but  slightly,  or  not  at  all, 
affected.  (See  Plate  No.  4,  June  11 ;  Plate  No.  5,  July  17 ;  also 
Plate  No.  12,  June  and  August).  This  indicates  that  the  irri- 
gations preceding  were  either  about  right  or  scant  in  quantity. 
At  any  rate  the  amount  of  water  that  passed  into  the  country 
drainage  was  very  small. 

In  a  few  instances  the  water  table  shows  a  slight  rise,  before 
the  first  spring  irrigation  on  the  ground  immediately  around  the 
well.  (See  Plate  No.  5,  April;  Plate  No.  6,  March;  Plate  No.  10, 
April,  May  and  June;  Plate  No.  13,  April).  In  these  instances 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  variations  occur  always  after  the  first 
irrigation  on  the  farm,  and  are  probably  caused  by  the  seepage 
from  the  lands  either  above  or  below.  It  may  be  well  to  state 
here  that  excessive  quantities  of  water  applied  on  land  near 
either  1,  2  or  3  will  affect  the  level  in  the  others;  likewh'se  Nos. 
1  or  6;  Nos.  6  and  4,  and  Nos.  7,  5  and  4. 

Influence  of  Irrigations  on  Remote  Areas:  One  other 
peculiarity  we  find  in  the  graphs  of  Wells  Nos.  4,  5,  6  and  7 
for  November,  1911.  (See  Plates  Nos.  8,  11  and  13).  Well  No. 
7  shows  a  rise  of  over  a  foot  six  inches,  and  lesser  rises  are  shown 
by  those  farther  removed — Nos.  4,  5  and  6  respectively.  This  was 
probably  caused  by  a  neighbor  irrigating  his  grain  field  that  lay 
next  to  the  farm  on  the  north  and  northeast,  and  thus  adjacent 


WELLNo6 


\I9I2\ 


|  Irrigations 


j_L 


1;   I  ii  .  J 


Plates  10,  11  and  12. 


16  BULLETIN     NO.     144 

to  the  land  surrounding  Well  No.  7.  This  grain  field  was 
literally  soaked  for  nearly  a  week,  as  water  at  that  time  of  the 
year  could  be  had  for  the  asking. 

Yearly  Variations:  As  before  stated,  after  1911  the  fre- 
quency of  the  irrigations  was  lessened  and  it  was  aimed  to  reduce 
the  quantity  of  water  applied.  While  it  is  quite  certain  that 
less  water  was  used  each  irrigation,  yet,  that  vast  quantities 
more  than  were  required  were  used  in  evident  from  a  study  of 
Tables  Nos.  3-9  inclusive.  Table  No.  10  is  a  summary  of  the 
above  and  it  represents  the  mean  level  on  the  farm,  rising  from 
7  feet  11.2  inches  from  the  surface  in  1910-11  to  6  feet  9.5  inches 
in  1912-13,  and  then  dropping  to  8  feet  0.7  inches  in  1913-14.1 

This  sudden  lowering  in  the  fall  of  1913  and  continuing  with 
variations  until  spring  of  the  next  year,  is  undoubtedly  due  to 
the  failure  to  irrigate  sufficiently  in  the  late,  hot  summer  and 
early  fall  months.  (See  Plates  Nos.  3,  6  and  12).  Since  a  num- 
ber of  trees  near  Well  No.  1  and  a  number  of  vines  near  Well  No. 
6  lost  most  of  their  leaves  it  was  probably  as  a  result  of  this 
scarcity  of  irrigation  water,  when  actually  needed. 

While  this  experience  shows  that  the  level  of  the  water  can 
be  controlled  by  adding  or  withholding  water  in  quantities  in  the 
summer  as  well  as  through  the  winter  (when  unhampered  by  see- 
page from  higher  lands)  yet  it  also  shows  that  caution  should  be 
exercised  and  sufficient  water  added  to  the  soil  to  keep  the 
vegetation  on  it  thriving. 

Effect  on  Vegetation. 

How  in  general  will  fluctuations  of  the  water  table  similar  to 
those  shown  in  the  foregoing  pages  affect  vegetation?  Let  us. 
take  for  example  the  history  of  the  orchard  on  Plat  "C"  and 
that  of  the  lucern  on  Plat  *  *  B ".  Let  us  note  their  behavior,  and 
the  soil  conditions  as  far  back  as  we  can  and  the  probable  effect 
that  the  irrigations  may  have  had  upon  the  soil  and  so  upon  the 
roots  of  the  crops  growing  thereon,  with  the  resultant  change  in 
the  physical  vigor  of  the  plants. 

As  stated  in  Utah  Station  Bulletin  No.  124,  the  vines  and 
trees  first  showed  the  presence  of  unusual  soil  conditions  about 

1.  Tables  have  been  omitted,  as  most  of  the  data  is  shown  in  the 
Plates. 


WATER     TABLE     VARIATIONS  IT 

1905-  In  Bulletin  No.  121  of  this  station,  page  246,  it  says  that 
during  June  of  that  year  a  soil  survey  was  made  of  the  Southern 
Utah  Experiment  Farm  and  that  samples  were  taken  of  every 
other  depth  of  10  feet.  The  field  notes  by  J.  C.  Thomas  shows, 
that  on  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Plat  "C"  orchard  the  soil  from 
the  seventh  to  the  ninth  foot  was  ''very  moist,"  and  that  the 
tenth  foot  was  "very  wet."  Also  that  the  soil  of  the  south 
central  part  of  the  orchard  was  "very  wet"  at  the  seventh  foot, 


3 

a 

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5 

WELLNo.7 

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6 

j 

7 

; 

Ns 

7'  V_ 

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s_ 

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1911 

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Irrigations 

1  1 

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4 

1         ,               J      1        Precipitation    |       (j 

.     1  j      J 

Depth 

Vff 

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Nov        DGC 

<-/qrf.       F~qtf.  \Maffh 

Apr\l 

Mpy      J 

i^ne       L/Vi"        ^VJ?!  i^P1 

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WELL  No  7 

fi 

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, 

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Irrigations 

I 

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t  Precipitation 

i      J          J      , 

L    il. 

Plates  13  and  14. 


18  BULLETIN     NO.     144 

and  below  this  was  so  soft  and  muddy  that  the  hole  would  be 
partly  filled  up  after  withdrawing  the  auger.  This  was  near  the 
place  where  five  years  later  Well  'No.  4  was  bored.  The  same 
notes  give  the  condition  of  the  soil  where  later  Well  No.  5  was 
bored  as  similar  to  the  above  except  it  was  a  foot  lower  down. 

Of  the  condition  of  the  soil  near  where  Well  No.  2  was  later 
bored  they  say  "Sixth  foot  soft  and  sticky";  "seventh  foot  and 
below  soft  and  muddy."  Where  Well  No.  3  was  bored  they  say, 
"sixth  and  seventh  wet;  eighth,  ninth  and  tenth  feet  wet  and 
muddy. ' ' 

From  the  experience  of  the  writer  in  cleaning  the  wells  out 
hundreds  of  times  this  indicates  that  the  water  table  near  Well 
No.  4  was  between  six  and  seven  feet  from  the  surface ;  near  Well 
No.  5  was  about  a  foot  lower;  near  Well  No.  2  was  probably  not 
six  feet  from  the  surface  and  about  the  same  for  the  area  near 
Well  No.  3.  The  notes  further  show  that  in  the  boring  not  more 
than  twenty  feet  from  where  Well  No.  1  now  is,  the  water  table 
was  possibly  above  the  tenth  foot,  for  it  says,  "tenth  foot 
muddy."  These  borings  were  made  nearly  three  weeks  after  an 
irrigation  so  that  in  all  cases  the  water  level  was  pretty  well 
down,  and,  if  such  were  the  case,  the  general  level  of  the  water 
over  the  entire  farm  was  not  very  much  lower  than  it  was  in  June 
of  1910,  or  June  of  1911. 

As  was  stated  in  the  beginning  the  method  of  irrigating  over 
the  entire  farm  was  not  altered  for  1911  from  what  it  had  been 
for  the  years  previous.  The  regular  farm  hand  having  done  most 
of  the  irrigating  previous  to  1910  and  doing  most  of  it  after  that 
date  it  is  probable  that  the  soil  conditions  from  1905  to  1910  were 
very  similar  to  those  later,  i.  e.,  the  irrigation  water  had  much 
the  same  effect  on  the  position  of  the  water  table  causing  rapid 
rises  of  it  to  be  followed  by  a  gradual  lowering  until  the  next 
irrigation. 

Table  No.  11  gives  the  dates  of  the  irrigations  on  the  Plat 
"C"  orchard  from  the  time  it  was  planted  until  the  remaining 
trees  were  pulled  up  in  the  fall  of  1910.  A  study  of  this  shows 
many  periods  of  six  to  eight  weeks,  through  June,  July,  August 
and  September,  between  irrigations ;  and  these  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  during  these  months  the  hottest,  driest  weather  occurs, 
and,  consequently,  the  rate  of  soil  evaporation  and  leaf  transpir- 
ation is  greatest.  During  such  periods  the  soil  moisture  would 


WATER     TABLE     VARIATIONS  19 

probably  be  exhausted  in  that  portion  near  the  surface  and  this 
would  result  in  the  development  of  a  deeper  rooted  system  of 
feeders.  This  would  be  true  up  to  the  season  of  1905  when  more 
water  was  applied  to  the  soil  and  probably  the  water  table  was 
raised  to  some  extent.  In  1906,  1907,  1908  and  1909,  these  periods 
without  irrigation  water  were  lengthened,  especially  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  summer;  while  in  the  forepart  of  the  season,  especially 
in  1908,  the  irrigations  were  frequent. 

While  it  is  true  that  the  rainfall  was  considerable  in  some  of 
the  months  this  usually  falls  in  the  summer  in  very  short  heavy 
showers,  and  during  such  the  run-off  is  very  great,  especially 
since  the  soil  was  cultivated  but  once  after  each  irrigation,  and 
an  almost  impervious  crust  was  formed  by  the  first  passing 
shower. 

Whether  these  conditions  favored  the  development  of  deep 
root  systems  or  not  the  matter  presented  in  the  bulletin  preceding 
this  shows  that  the  trees  in  the  central  portion  of  the  Plat  "C" 
orchard  sent  their  roots  deep  into  the  soil  and  that  many  of  these, 
for  some  reason,  died;  so  that  when  the  soil  around  the  surface 
feeders  became  very  dry,  the  trees  became  dependent  upon  the 
roots  which  reached  deeper,  and  if  these  were  limited  in  number 
or  were  near  free  alkaline  water  they  would  be  unable  to  supply 
the  amount  of  good  sap  demanded  by  the  leaves,  and  the  latter 
must  of  necessity  wholly  or  in  part  wither  up  and  drop  off,  and 
eventually  the  tree  would  die. 

An  interesting  condition  of  the  orchard  in  question,  in  support 
of  the  above,  was  noted  during  the  summer  of  1910.  In  mapping 
Plat  "C"  it  was  considered  desirable  to  note  the  condition  of  each 
tree  in  the  dying  orchard.  This  showed  that  out  of  945  trees 
originally  planted,  371  had  been  removed  prior  to  the  growing 
season  of  1910,  while  165  had  died  during  the  summer  and  166 
were  dicing,  and  but  25.7%  were  in  a  healthy  condition.  The 
above  represents  the  status  of  the  orchard,  August  22  to  25. 

During  the  month  following  several  good  showers  fell,  the 
total  precipitation  for  the  month  being  1.4  inches.  This  moistened 
the  soil  from  four  to  six  inches  down  and  caused  many  of  the 
trees  to  start  a  new  growth,  sometimes  from  the  ends  of  the 
twigs  and  sometimes  from  the  larger  branches  hear  the  base. 
By  October  10  the  change  in  the  appearance  and  condition  of  the 
trees  seemed  to  warrant  another  investigation,  and  accordingly 


20  BULLETIN     NO.     144 

the  entire  orchard  was  gone  over.  Each  tree  was  examined  and 
its  relative  change  was  noted  with  the  following  results. 

Of  the  243  trees  classed  as  healthy,  August  22-25,  65  were 
losing  their  old  leaves  in  quantities  (about  a  month  too  soon), 
12  had  fully  lost  them  and  had  started  a  new  growth,  while  4  had 
only  partly  lost  them  (three  of  them  were  in  bloom),  but  had  also 
started  a  new  growth.  This  left  but  162  trees  of  the  original 
number  of  trees  classed  as  healthy,  while  5  that  were  formerly 
classed  as  sick  had  recovered,  thus  bringing  the  total  to  167 
healthy  trees. 

Of  those  previously  classed  as  sick,  64  had  lost  nearly  all  of 
their  old  leaves,  and  had  started  a  new  growth.  Of  this  number 
9  were  now  dead  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  the 
former  was  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  dead  peach  trees  and 
that  the  latter  was  in  an  area  that  had  long  since  gone  bad,  the 
ground  being  covered  with  a  dark  alkaline  incrustation.  That 
is,  the  apricots  just  north  had  been  dead  for  two  or  more  years, 
and  even  one  of  the  Winter  Bartlett  Pear  trees,  32  feet  west  of 
the  one  dug  up,  had  died  at  least  a  year  before. 

This  was  also  borne  out  by  the  condition  of  the  surface  soil 
of  the  area  surrounding  the  Jonathan  apple  that  was  dug  up  and 
also  in  the  case  of  the  grape  vine. 

Suggested  Remedies. 

Since  the  presence  of  more  or  less  alkaline  water  near  the 
surface  of  soil  and — periodically  at  least — within  the  space 
normally  occupied  by  the  feeding  roots  of  average  plants,  is  in- 
jurious or  fatal  to  them,  to  produce  crops  it  becomes  necessary 
to  do  one  of  three  things,  i.  e.,  to  grow  shallow  rooted  crops  or 
those  not  affected  by  the  prevailing  conditions ;  or  the  area  must 
be  drained  to  such  depths  that  the  desired  crop  requires  for  the 
development  of  its  root  system;  or  if  the  situation  is  realized 
soon  enough  measures  can  be  adopted  to  prevent  the  filling  of 
the  great  subterranean  reservoir  of  aereated  soil. 

On  soils  where  the  free  water  is  near  the  surface  and  drainage 
is  not  feasible,  if  there  is  not  too  great  a  quantity  of  alkaline 
salts  present,  shallow  rooted  crops  such  as  corn,  onions,  sugar 
beets,  beans,  etc.,  may  be  grown  by  guarding  against  too  liberal 
applications  of  water. 


WATER     TABLE     VARIATIONS  21 

On  soils  already  seeped  and  where  no  other  remedy  will 
apply  a  complete  system  of  open,  box  or  file  drains  should  be  put 
in  if  the  increased  value  of  the  land  will  warrant  it. 

On  areas  of  land  situated  like  the  Southern  Utah  Experi- 
ment Farm,  where  during  the  winter  the  free  water  sinks  to  six 
or  eight  feet  below  the  surface  and  where  the  rise  is  due  to  the 
surface  applications  alone,  an  extended  system  of  drains  would 
be  absurd;  in  fact,  it  is  questionable  whether  they  would  help 
at  all  unless  placed  very  deeply  in  the  soil.  The  problem  here 
seems  to  be  one  to  be  solved  by  applying  water  quickly  and  fre- 
quently and  by  increasing  the  organic  content  of  the  soil,  thus 
reducing  the  amount  of  water  that  will  be  required,  as  well  as 
the  frequency  of  its  appearance. 

The  prevention  of  these  seepage  conditions  then  resolves 
itself  into  the  old  one  of  an  economical  use  of  the  available  water, 
so  long  advocated  by  the  Utah  Station.  On  the  land  under 
discussion  the  longest  run  for  the  water  was  slightly  over  three 
hundred  feet,  or  less  than  twenty  rods.  It  was  found  that  a 
great  saving  in  time  was  effected  by  cutting  this  run  in  two  and 
the  ground  was  sufficiently  moistened  for  all  purposes.  The 
same  general  practice  can  be  followed  on  all  porous  soils  concen- 
trating the  stream  as  much  as  possible  without  much  washing  the 
land.  On  clays  and  loams  the  runs  can  be  longer  and  if  difficulty 
is  experienced  in  soaking  the  ground  sufficiently,  it  may  be 
advisable  to  spread  the  stream  out  more,  or  to  barely  cover  it  and 
immediately  turn  the  water  off  and  within  a  few  hours  to  repeat 
the  process. 

Finally  there  will  always  exist  the  necessity  for  the  irri gator 
to  know  just  how  far  down  his  water  has  penetrated,  and  to 
ascertain  this  a  soil  auger  would  probably  be  the  best  tool  avail- 
able. It  should  be  used  frequently  and  persistently  until  the 
irri  gator  knows  just  how  long  a  time  is  required  to  moisten  the 
soil  properly. 

SUMMARY, 

In  the  soils  under  discussion  the  level  of  the  free  water  varied. 

1.  It  lowered  through  the  action  of  the  natural  drainage,  the 
surface  evaporation  and  the  growing  vegetation. 

2.     The   normal   precipitation   caused   it   to   rise — the   amount 
depending  upon  the  distance  of  the  free  water  from  the  surface 


22  BULLETIN     NO.     144 

and  the  quantity  of  rain  falling;  small  amounts  showing  no 
appreciable  influence  under  the  method  used  in  taking  the 
measurements. 

3.     Long  continued  irrigations  caused  the  level  to  rise. 

a.  This  rise  was  greatest  where  the  free  water  was  nearest 
the  surface. 

b.  The  amount  of  rise  apparently  depended  upon  the  length 
of  time  the  stream  was  allowed  to  run  on  the  land.     (This  is  based 
on  the  two  applications  made  in  half  the  usual  time). 

4.  The  fluctuation    of    the    water    level    caused    by    heavy 
applications  of  water  followed  by  long  dry  periods  was  disastrous 
to  crops. 

a.  It  caused  the  death  of  large  numbers  of  trees  and  vines; 
the  first  of  the  former  w7hich  died  were  those  where  t'he  water 
was  confined  to  two  or  four  narrow  furrows   (two  for  the  first 
few  years,  then  four)  made  close  to  the  trees.       The  ones  that 
were  alive  to  the  last  were  on  those  parts  flooded  by  the  regular 
irrigations. 

b.  It  lessened  the  lucern  fields  production  to  less  than  one- 
fifth  of  its  former  normal  yield. 

c.  Crops  of  oats  grown  after  the  lucern  at  no  time  produced 
more  than  half  crops, 

5.  The  application   of  less  water  more  rapidly  applied  is 
indicated  as  the  logical  remedy  for  this  seeped  condition.       On 
other   soils    and   under   different    conditions    drainage   might   bo 
advisable  or  necessary.       At  any  rate  the  effect  of  irrigation  on 
land  with  a  given  stream  for  a  definite  period  of  time  should  be 
known  by  all  users  of  irrigating  wrater.      This  action  of  the  water 
can  be  determined  only  by  using  on  each  tract  of  land  a  soil  auger 
or  some  similar  implement, — the  borings  to  be  made  before,  dur- 
ing, after,  and  a  day  after  the  irrigations. 


WATER    TABLE    VARIATIONS  23 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

Acknowledgment  is  due  Dr.  E.  D.  Ball  who  instituted  the 
work,  and  to  William  Goodspeed  and  Ray  Smith  who  directed 
the  taking  of  the  measurements  through  June,  July,  August  and 
September  in  1913  and  1914  respectively.  Mr.  John  H.  Tobler, 
the  faithful  farm  laborer,  also  took  many  of  the  measurements, 
and  to  him  and  the  others  mentioned  much  credit  is  gratefully 
given. 


